A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE OF PRINTED BOARD ASSEMBLIES - VOLUME 1

by W. MACLEOD ROSS

Pages--744+xxii; Tables--59; Figures--451; References--327;
ISBN 0 901150 32 0

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Electronics

1.2 Conduction — a Simple View

1.2.1 Superconductivity

1.3 Components and Assemblies

Chapter 2

Historical Background

2.1 Introduction

Part 1 — Printed Boards

2.2 Early Days

2.2.1 Prior Art

2.2.2 The Birth of the Printed Circuit

2.2.3    The First Printed Circuit Symposium

2.2.4 Module Development

2.3 Further Development

2.3.1 Plated-through Hole Boards

2.3.2 Multilayer Boards

2.3.3 Additive Processes

2.3.4 Discrete Wired Boards

2.3.5 Flexible Circuits

2.3.6 Other PB Developments

2.4 Materials and Processes

2.4.1 Laminates

2.4.2 Resists and Etchants

2.4.3 Machining

2.4.4 Hole Pretreatment, Metallising and Plating

2.4.5 Finishes

2.4.6 CAD

2.5 In Conclusion

2.5.1 Printed Boards and the Environment

2.5.2 The Future of Printed Circuits

Part 2 — Electronic Components

2.6 General

2.7 1701-1800

2.8 1801-1900

2.8.1 1801-1830

2.8.2 1831-1860

2.8.3 1861-1880

2.8.4 1881-1900

2.9 1901-

2.9.1 1901-1920

2.9.2 1921-1940

2.9.3 1941-1960

2.9.4 1961-1980

2.9.5 1981-

Part 3 — Soldering

2.10 From Ancient Craft to Modern Science

Section 2: Electronic Components

Chapter 3

Conventional Components

3.1 General

3.2 Classification

3.3 Resistors

3.3.1 Packages

3.3.2 Characteristics

3.3.3 Manufacturing Technology

3.3.4 Identification

3.3.5 Variable Resistors

3.4 Capacitors

3.4.1 Packages

3.4.2 Characteristics

3.4.3 Manufacturing Technology

3.4.4 Electrolytic Capacitors

3.4.5 Identification

3.4.6 Variable Capacitors

3.5 Semiconductor Diodes

3.5.1 Packages

3.5.2 Characteristics

3.5.3 Technology

3.5.4 Identification

3.5.5 Rectifiers

3.6 Transistors

3.6.1 Packages

3.6.2 Characteristics

3.6.3 Manufacturing Technology

3.6.4 Identification

3.7 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers and Thyristors

3.8 Optoelectronic Devices

3.8.1 Packages

3.9 Monolithic Integrated Circuits

3.9.1 Classification

3.9.1.1 Technology

3.9.1.2 Operating Mode

3.9.1.3 Function

3.9.1.4 Level of Integration

3.9.2 Manufacturing Technology

3.9.3 Analogue ICs

3.9.4 Digital ICs

3.9.4.1 Elementary Circuits

3.9.4.2 Memories

3.9.4.3 Microprocessors

3.9.4.4 ASICs

3.9.5 Packages

3.10 Hybrid Integrated Circuits

3.10.1 Thin Film Hybrids

3.10.2 Thick Film Hybrids

3.10.3 Packages

Chapter 4

Surface Mounted Components

4.2 Classification

4.3 Passive Surface Mounting Components

4.3.1 MELF Components

4.3.1.1 Resistors

4.3.1.2 Jumpers

4.3.1.3 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Resistors

4.3.1.4 Capacitors

4.3.1.5 Inductors

4.3.2 Mini-MELF Components

4.3.3 Other Cylindrical Components

4.3.4 Chip Components

4.3.4.1 Resistors

4.3.4.4 Ceramic Chip Capacitors

4.3.4.5 Microchip Capacitors

4.3.4.6 Chip Inductors

4.3.5 Other Flat Components

4.3.5.1 Metal Film Square Chip Resistors

4.3.5.2 High Power Resistors

4.3.5.3 Metallised Polyester Capacitors

4.3.5.4 Wet Type Aluminium Electrolytic Converters

4.3.5.5 Solid Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors

4.3.5.6 Tantalum Electrolytic Converters

4.3.5.7 Inductors

4.3.5.8 Oscillators and Filters

4.3.6 Miscellaneous Passive Components

4.3.6.1 Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors

4.3.6.2 Potentiometers

4.3.6.3 Trimmer Capacitors

4.3.6.4 Connectors

4.4 Active Surface Mounting Components

4.4.1 Diodes

4.4.2 SOT-23

4.4.3 SOT-89

4.4.4 SOT-143

4.4.5 SOT-223

4.4.6 Adapted Packages

4.4.7 Small Outline Integrated Circuits — SOICs

4.4.8 Very Small Outline Packages — VSOs

4.4.9 Flatpacks and Quadpacks — QFPs

4.4.10 Plastic Flat Packs — PFPs

4.4.11 Plastic Leaded Chip Carrier — PLCC

4.4.12 Small Outline J-leaded Package — SOJ

4.4.13 Leadless Ceramic Chip Carrier — LCCC

4.4.14 Leaded Ceramic Chip Carrier — LDCC

4.4.15 Other Complex Packages

4.4.16 Tape Automated Bonding — TAB (See also Chapter 16)

4.4.17 Chip-on-board (COB) and Multichip Modules (MCMs)

4.4.17.1 Chip-on-board

4.4.17.2 Multichip Modules

4.5 Supply Packaging

4.5.1 Bulk

4.5.2 Magazine

4.5.3 Rail and Tube

4.5.4 Tray or Palette

4.5.5 Adhesive Tape

4.5.6 Tape-on-reel

4.6 Advantages of SMT

4.6.1 Design Freedom

4.6.2 Size and Weight

4.6.3 Reliability

4.6.4 Electrical Characteristics

4.6.5 Effect of SMT on Automation

4.6.6 Cost

4.7 Disadvantages of SMT

4.8 The Future of Surface Mounting

Section 3: Assembly Techniques

Chapter 5

Manual Assembly

5.1 General

5.1.1 Manpower and Manual Assembly

5.2 Low Volume Assembly

5.3 Mass Production

5.3.1 Without Pre-cut and Formed Components

5.3.2 Automatic Positioning Tables

5.3.3 Using Pre-cut and Formed Components

5.4 Lead Preforming

5.4.1 Types of Preformed Shape — Axial Components

5.4.2 Manual Preforming — Axial Components

5.4.3 Preforming Equipment for Axial Components

5.4.4 Preforming Non-axial Leaded Components

5.5 Production Aids

5.5.1 Layout Memorisation

5.5.2 Stage Assembly

5.5.3 Sequence Assembly

5.5.4 Component Sequencing

5.6 Visual Aids

5.6.1 Screen Printing

5.6.2 Slide Projection

5.6.3 Lamp Displays

5.6.4 LED Displays

5.6.5 Optical Fibre Displays

5.6.6 Laser Scanning Systems

5.7 Assembly Inspection

5.7.1 Visual Inspection

5.7.2 Equipment Assisted Inspection

Chapter 6

Automatic Assembly — Conventional Components

6.1 Introduction

6.1.1 Economics of Automation

6.1.2 The ‘Mechanical Horse’

6.2 Early Automation

6.2.1 Semi-automatic Equipment

6.2.2 The Transfer Line

6.3 Component Packaging

6.3.1 Axial Component Taping

6.3.2 Radial Component Taping

6.3.3 DIP Components

6.3.4 Odd Components

6.4 Machine Types

6.4.1 Dedicated Inserters

6.4.2 Off-line Sequencing

6.4.2.1 Axial Component Sequencing

6.4.2.2 Sequence Verifiers

6.4.3 In-line Sequencing

6.4.3.1 Chain Sequencing

6.4.3.2 Air Delivery

6.4.3.3 Shuttle Delivery

6.4.3.4 Gravity Chute

6.4.3.5 Sort-and-place

6.4.3.6 Pick-and-place

6.4.4 X-Y Tables and Rotary Tables

6.4.5 Positioning Aids — Optical Verifiers

6.4.6 Cutting and Clinching

6.4.7 Insertion Verification On-line

6.4.8 Control Unit

6.5 Axial Component Insertion Machines

6.5.1 Inserters versus Sequencer-inserters

6.5.2 Fixed versus Variable Centre Distance

6.5.3 Insertion Programs

6.5.4 Insertion Cycle

6.5.5 Typical Axial Inserters

6.6 Radial Component Insertion Machines

6.6.1 Machine A

6.6.2 Machine B

6.6.3 Machine C

6.7 Dual Inserters

6.8 Dip Insertion Machines

6.8.1 Component Feeding

6.8.2 Insertion Cycle

6.8.3 Typical DIP Sequencer-Inserters

6.8.3.1 Example A

6.8.3.2 Example B

6.8.3.3 Example C

6.8.3.4 Example D

6.8.3.5 Equipment Manufacturers

6.9 Odd Component Insertion Machines

6.9.1 Dedicated Insertion Machines for Odd Components

6.9.2 General Purpose Robots

6.10 Assembly Inspection

6.10.1 Visual Inspection

6.10.2 Inspection Equipment

6.11 Board Handling

Chapter 7

Automatic Assembly — Surface Mount Components

7.1 Types of Surface Mount Assembly (SMA)

7.1.1 Single-sided SMA

7.1.2 Double-sided SMA

7.1.3 Mixprint — SMDs One Side Only

7.1.4 Full Mixprint

7.2 Surface Mounting Adhesives

7.2.1 Requirements for Adhesives

7.2.2 Application Methods

7.2.2.1 Pin Transfer

7.2.2.2 Syringe

7.2.2.3 Screen Printing

7.2.3 Adhesive Dot Criteria

7.2.4 Storage of Boards

7.2.5 Adhesive Curing

7.3 Solder Pastes

7.4 Conductive Adhesives

7.5.1 Evolution of Pick-and-Place Equipment from Manual Assembly

7.5.2 Automatic Mounting

7.5.3 An Automatic Mounting Machine

7.5.4 PB Loading and Positioning

7.5.5 Component Feeding

7.5.5.1 Rails and Tubes

7.5.5.2 Vibratory Bowl

7.5.5.3 Vibrating Conveyor

7.5.5.4 Hopper

7.5.5.5 Tape on Reel

7.5.5.6 Others

7.5.6 Application Heads

7.5.6.1 Picking Up

7.5.6.2 Centring

7.5.6.3 Rotation

7.5.6.4 Testing

7.5.6.5 Placement Control

7.5.6.6 Teach-in Options

7.5.6.7 Bad Circuit Detector

7.5.6.8 Optical Recognition Equipment

7.5.6.9 Turret Heads

7.5.6.10 Adhesive Applicators

7.5.7 Control

7.5.8 Software Packages

7.6 Mounting Equipment

7.6.1 Table-top

7.6.2 Pick-and-place

7.6.2.1 Examples of Sequential Pick-and-place Machines

7.6.3 Multiple Arm Pick-and-place

7.6.4 Parallel Equipment

7.6.5 Parallel-sequential Equipment

7.7 Ancillary Equipment

7.7.1 Curing Ovens

7.7.2 General Purpose Robots

7.8 Integrated Assembly Lines

7.9 Equipment Selection

Section 4: Design and Layout of Printed Boards

Chapter 8

General Principles of Design and Layout (of Printed Board Assemblies)

8.1 General

8.2 Basic Definitions

8.3 Classification of PBs

8.4 Initial Assessment

8.5 Tentative Dimensioning

8.5.1 Vertical Mounting

8.6 Working Out the Volume

8.7 Multiple Board Assembly

8.7.1 Advantages of a Single Board Solution

8.7.2 Advantages of a Multiple Board Solution

8.7.3 Point-to-point Wiring

8.7.4 Soldered Backplanes

8.7.5 Book Connection

8.7.6 Motherboard

8.7.7 Soldered Add-ons

8.7.8 Sandwich

8.7.9 Others

8.8 Design of Boards

8.8.1 Partition of the Assembly

8.8.1.1 Number of Connections

8.8.1.2 Assembly Technology

8.8.1.3 Making a Layout

8.8.1.4 Testability and Repairabilty

8.8.1.5 Maintainabilty

8.8.1.6 Environment

8.8.1.7 Logistics

8.8.1.8 Costs

8.8.2 Gross and Net Area

8.8.3 PIH Assembly

8.8.4 SMC Assembly

8.8.5 Mixprint Assemblies

8.8.6 Heavy Components

8.8.7 Other Points

8.9 Conductor Dimensioning

8.10 Further Reading

Chapter 9

Layout of Printed Circuit Boards

9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Manual Layout

9.1.2 Amateur’s Layout

9.1.3 Manual Drawing of Artworks

9.1.4 Master Drawing

9.1.5 Component Map

9.2 Automated Production of Films

9.2.1 Digitising

9.2.2 Editing

9.2.3 Photoplotting

9.3 General Principles

9.3.1 Why Use a Grid?

9.3.2 Grid Selection

9.3.3 Grid Sizes in Common Use

9.3.4 A Bad Example

9.3.5 A Good Example

9.4 PIH (Pin-in-hole) Components

9.4.1 Axial Components

9.4.2 Other Discrete Components

9.4.3 Integrated Circuits

9.5 Surface Mounted Components

9.5.1 Is a Grid Essential?

9.5.2 Minimum Distance

9.5.3 Dimensioning of Lands

9.5.3.1 Wave Soldering

9.5.3.2 Reflow Soldering

9.5.4 Footprints

9.5.4.1 Chip SMD Footprints

9.5.4.2 MELF Component Footprints

9.5.4.3 Other Discrete SMC Footprints

9.5.4.4 SM Integrated Circuit Footprints

9.6 Multiple Boards

9.7 Conclusion

Chapter 10

CAD/CAM

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Input Formats

10.2.1 Pin List

10.2.2 Schematic Entry

10.2.2.1 Style of Schematic Entry

10.2.2.2 Hierarchical Design

10.2.2.3 Libraries

10.2.3 No Format Supplied

10.3 Simulation

10.3.1 PAL, PLA and ASIC

10.4 Printed Board Layout Requirements

10.4.1 Capability Required

10.4.1.1 Co-ordinate System

10.4.1.2 Resolution

10.4.1.3 Layers

10.4.1.4 Track/Trace Widths

10.4.1.5 Pad Shapes

10.4.2 Placement

10.4.2.1 Autoplacement

10.4.3 Routing

10.4.3.1 Manual Routing

10.4.3.2 Autoroute Styles

10.4.4 Design Checking

10.4.5 Modifications

10.4.6 Schematic Annotation

10.4.7 Automatic Test

10.4.8 Mechanical Drawing

10.5 Outputs

10.5.1 Schematics

10.5.2 Layouts

10.5.3 Photoplotting

10.5.3.1 Pen Plotters

10.5.3.2 Matrix Plotters

10.5.3.3 Laser Printers

10.6 Computer Aided Manufacturing

(CAM)

10.7 Interfaces

10.8 The Processing Platform

10.8.1 The Personal Computer (PC)

10.8.2 Memory Needs

10.8.3 Data Transfer

10.8.4 Machine Architecture

10.8.5 Graphics

10.8.6 Networks and Workstations

10.8.7 Processor Performance

10.9 Man-machine Interaction

10.10 Choosing a CAD System

Chapter 11

Thermal Management Aspects

11.1 Introduction

11.1.1 Thermal Design

11.1.1.1 The Influence of Components and Cooling Methods on Temperature

11.1.1.2 The R™le of Temperature Prediction

11.1.1.3 How Far Thermal Design?

11.1.2 Format of this Chapter

11.2 Heat Transfer Mechanisms and Temperature Effects

11.2.1 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

11.2.1.1 Conduction

11.2.1.2 Convection

11.2.1.3 Radiation

11.2.1.4 Phase-change Heat Absorption

11.2.2 Difficulties Involved in Evaluating the Effects of Temperature on Reliability and Performance

11.2.3 Approach to Thermal Design

11.2.4 Designing for Reliability and Performance

11.2.4.1 Will the System Operate?

11.2.4.2 Can the System be Improved?

11.2.4.3 Relationship between Temperature and Performance

11.3 Printed Circuit Board Construction and Examples

11.3.1 Types of Printed Circuit Board

11.3.1.1 A Combination of Circuit Board Types

11.3.2 Circuit Board Thermal Properties

11.3.2.1 The Thermal Conductivity of Basic Epoxide Printed Circuit Boards

11.3.2.2 Effective Thermal Conductivity of Printed Circuit Boards having a High Thermal Conductivity Core

11.3.2.3 Surface Heat Loss and Gain from Boards having a High Thermal Conductivity Core

11.3.2.4 Poor Thermal Conductivity Boards having Designed Heat Pathways Bonded to their Surface

11.3.3 Circuit Board Examples for Illustrating the Estimation of Effective Thermal Properties

11.4 ‘First Look’ Methods of Circuit Board Thermal Design

11.4.1 ‘First Look’ Temperature Prediction for Circuit Boards without Surface Heat Loss

11.4.1.1 Concentration of Heat Generation at the Mean Distance from the Heat Sink

11.4.1.2 Uniform Distribution of Heat Generation with no Surface Heat Loss

11.4.1.3 Effect of Component Size

11.4.1.4 Estimate of Component Area Temperatures

11.4.2 ‘First Look’ Temperature Prediction for Surface-cooled Circuit Boards

11.4.2.1 Simplification of Temperature Profile Approach

11.4.2.2 Exact Evaluation of Uniformly Heated Circuit Board with Surface Heat Loss

11.4.2.3 Effect of Component Size under Surface Heat Loss Conditions

11.4.2.4 Estimate of Component Area Temperatures for Surface Cooling

11.4.3 General Features of Temperature Prediction using ‘First Look’ Methods

11.4.3.1 Area of Sparse Power Dissipation

11.4.3.2      Poor Thermal Conductivity Circuit Boards

11.4.4 ‘First Look’ Temperature Prediction for Circuit Boards Cooled by a Rear-mounted Heat Sink

11.4.5 ‘First Look’ Temperature Values for Components

11.5 More Accurate Methods of Estimating the Temperatures Reached in Printed Circuit Boards

11.5.1 Balanced Circuits

11.5.1.1 Balanced Circuits Mounted on Conduction-only Cooled Circuit Boards

11.5.1.2 Balanced Circuits Mounted on Surface-cooled Circuit Boards

11.5.2 Excess Temperature Estimation

11.5.2.1 A Graphical Method of Temperature Prediction for Conduction-cooled Circuit Boards

11.5.2.2 Temperature Estimates for Surface-cooled Circuit Boards

11.5.3 Estimates of Temperatures Arising on Circuit Boards Cooled by a Rear-mounted Heat Sink

11.5.4 Temperature Values for Components

11.6 Desk-computer-supported Circuit Board Thermal Design

11.6.1 Defects of Computer Packages when used for Thermal Design

11.6.2 Two Reliable Computer-assisted Methods

11.6.2.1 A Method for Edge-cooled Circuit Boards

11.6.2.2 A Method for Rear-cooled Circuit Boards

11.7 Convection Cooling

11.7.1 The Mechanisms of Convection

11.7.1.1 Design Features of Air-cooled Systems

11.7.2 Accuracy of Heat Transfer Coefficients

11.7.2.1 Influence of Changes in Air Temperature and Edge-connector Efficiency

11.7.3 Packages with an Attached Heat Sink

11.7.3.1 The Use of Die-cast Zinc Heat Sinks

11.7.4 Cooling within the Cabinet

11.8 Other Aspects of Thermal Design

11.8.1 Thermal Expansion Mismatch

11.8.1.1 Soft Solder Joint Embrittlement

11.8.1.2 Component Features

11.8.2 Liquid Cooling

11.8.2.1 Convection Cooling using Liquids

11.8.2.2 Phase-change Cooling by Nucleate Boiling

11.8.3 Heat Pipes

11.9 Postscript

Section 5: Soldering & Joining

Chapter 12

Soldering

12.1 Fundamentals of Soldering

12.2 Making a Solder Joint

12.3 Cost Breakdown (The Economics of Soldering)

12.3.1 Manufacturing Costs

12.3.2 Materials Cost versus Failure Cost

12.3.4 Quality Costs

12.4 Problem Areas in Soldering

12.5 Prerequisites for a Sound, Reliable Solder Joint

12.5.1 The Design Phase

12.5.1.1 Placement of the Solder Joint

12.5.1.2 The Joint Design (Dimensions, Geometry and Tolerances)

12.5.1.3 Thermal Problems

12.5.1.4 Repair

12.5.1.5 Demands Placed on the Solder Joint in Manufacturing, Storage, Transport and Operation

12.5.1.6 Properties of the Materials Used

12.5.1.7 Choice of Solder and Flux

12.5.1.8 Choice of Soldering Method

12.5.2 Preproduction Phase

12.5.2.1 Equipment and Workshop

12.5.2.2 Personnel

12.5.2.3 Preparation for Soldering

12.5.2.4 Preproduction Checks

12.5.2.5 Storage of Material

12.5.3 Production Phase

12.6 Metallurgy

12.6.1 Soldering

12.6.2 Dissolution of Metals

12.6.3 Solidification of Solder

12.6.4 Intermetallic Phases

12.6.5 Diffusion

12.7 Wetting

12.8 Thermal Considerations

12.9 Solderability

12.9.1 General

12.9.2 What is Solderability?

12.9.3 The Advantages of Solderability Testing

12.9.4 Preservation of Solderability

12.9.5 Solderability Testing Methods

12.9.5.1 The Wetting Balance Method

12.9.5.2 The Scanning Method

12.9.5.3 The Workshop Method

12.9.5.4 The Solder Globule Method

12.9.5.5 The Spread Test

12.9.5.6 Testing of Printed Boards

12.9.5.7 Artificial Ageing Methods

12.9.5.8 Analysing Solderability Results

12.9.5.9 Solderability Testing versus Actual Performance

12.9.6 Correcting Bad Solderability

12.10 Quality and Reliability

12.10.1 Education, Information, Training

12.10.1.1 Management

12.10.1.2 Designers

12.10.1.3 Soldering Operations and Inspectors

12.10.2 Statistical Considerations

12.10.2.1 The Problem of the Great Number of Solder Joints

12.10.2.2 How Exact is a Measured Value?

12.10.2.3 SPC — Statistical Process Control

12.10.3 Inspection of Solder Joints

12.10.3.1 Visual Inspection

12.10.3.2 Automated Optical Inspection (AOI)

12.10.3.3 X-Ray Inspection

12.10.3.4 Ultrasonic Inspection

12.10.3.5 Thermal Inspection

12.10.4 Soldering Defects

12.10.4.1 What is a Soldering Defect?

12.10.4.2 Soldering Defects and Failure Rate

12.10.4.3 Solder-filled Through-plated Holes or Not?

12.10.4.4 Defect Terminology

12.10.5 Expert Systems in Soldering

12.11 Mounting Methods

12.12 Classification of Assemblies

12.13 Health and Safety

12.13.1 Solders

12.13.2 Fluxes

12.13.3 Soldering Equipment

12.14 Terms and Definitions

12.14.1 General Definitions Related to Soldering

12.14.2 Terms Related to Soldering

12.14.3 Time-temperature Terms

12.14.4 Terms Related to Joint Form and Size

12.14.5 Terms Related to Solder Joints

12.14.6 Materials to be Joined

12.14.7 Flux Terms

12.14.8 Solder Terms

12.14.9 Soldering Aid Material

12.14.10 Soldering Methods and Processes

12.14.11 Quality Terms

12.14.12 Soldering Defects

Chapter 13

Materials Used in Soldering

13.1 General

13.2 Base Materials

13.3 Surface Treatments

13.3.1 Methods of Surface Treatment

13.3.2 Mechanism of Bonding

13.3.3 Layer Structure

13.3.3.1 The Bond

13.3.3.2 Diffusion Barriers

13.3.3.3 Protective Layers

13.3.3.4 Materials Build-up for Soldering

13.3.4 Solderable Coatings

13.3.4.1 Electrolytic Tinning

13.3.4.2 Hot Tinning

13.3.4.3 Nickel

13.3.4.4 Gold

13.3.4.5 Silver, Silver Palladium Plating

13.3.4.6 Problems in Plating

13.3.4.7 Points to be Checked

13.4 Solder for Electronic Purposes

13.4.1 General

13.4.2 Properties of Solder

13.4.3 Requirements Specified for Solders

13.4.4 Low Melting Point Solders

13.4.5 High Melting Point Solders

13.4.6 Step Soldering

13.4.7 Impurities in Solder

13.4.7.1 Copper

13.4.7.2 Gold

13.4.7.3 Silver

13.4.7.4 Iron

13.4.7.5 Nickel

13.4.7.6 Bismuth

13.4.7.7 Antimony

13.4.7.8 Arsenic

13.4.7.9 Aluminium, Zinc and Cadmium

13.4.7.10 Oxygen

13.4.7.11 Sulphur

13.4.7.12 Phosphorus

13.4.7.13 Dross

13.5 Fluxes

13.5.1 Definition of Fluxes

13.5.2 General

13.5.3 Classification of and Tests on Fluxes

13.5.4 Resin Fluxes

13.5.5 Colophony (Rosin)

13.5.6 Activated Rosin Fluxes

13.5.7 Halogen-containing Fluxes and Corrosion

13.5.8 Water-soluble Fluxes

13.5.9 Gaseous Fluxes and Soldering without Fluxes

13.5.10 Low Solid Content Flux, No Residue Flux

13.5.11 Cleaning off Fluxes and Flux Residues

13.6 Solder Pastes

13.6.1 General

13.6.2 Solder Balling

13.6.3 Viscosity

13.6.4 Slump

13.6.5 Corrosion of Residues

13.6.6 Assessment of Shape and Size of Solder Powder Particles

13.6.7 Storage of Solder Pastes

13.7 Properties of Solder Influencing the Solder   Joint

13.7.1 Cracks in the Solder Joint

13.7.2 Mechanisms of Solder Joint Failure

13.7.3 The Different Types of Strength

13.7.4 Fatigue

13.7.4.1 Lifetime Prediction

13.7.4.2 Testing of Fatigue Properties

13.7.4.3 Measures to Increase the Lifetime of a Solder Joint

13.7.5 Tin Pest

13.7.6 Whiskers

Chapter 14

Manual Soldering

14.1 Manual Soldering

14.2 The Soldering Iron

14.2.1 How Does a Soldering Iron Work?

14.2.2 The Soldering Iron Tip

14.2.3 The Wear of the Soldering Iron Tip

14.2.4 Heat Flow from the Iron to the Workpiece

14.2.5 Measuring the Tip Temperature

14.2.6 The Rating of the Soldering Iron

14.2.7 Tip Temperature and Heat Output from the Tip

14.2.8 Criteria for a Soldering Iron

14.2.9 Soldering Iron Support

14.2.10 ‘Tin Surplus’ Collector

14.3 Soldering Printed Wiring Boards

14.3.1 Boards, Components and Solder Requirements

14.3.2 Operator and Working Conditions

14.3.3 Soldering Conditions

14.3.4 Making the Joint

14.4 Rework and Repair

14.4.1 Repair of Conductors on the Board

14.4.2 Repair of Solder Joints

Chapter 15

Mass Soldering

15.1 General Conditions

15.1.1 Heat Supply

15.1.2 Temperature Profiles

15.1.3 Reflow Soldering

15.1.4 Controlled Atmosphere Soldering

15.2 The Mass Soldering Machine

15.2.1 The Soldering Fixture

15.2.2 The Conveyor

15.2.3 The Fluxing Station

15.2.3.1 Brush Fluxing and Dip Fluxing

15.2.3.2 Rotary Brush Fluxing

15.2.3.3 Wave Fluxing

15.2.3.4 Foam Fluxing

15.2.3.5 Spray Fluxing

15.2.3.6 Density Control

15.2.4 The Preheating Station

15.2.5 The Soldering Station

15.2.5.1 Solder Replacement

15.2.6 The Cleaning Station

15.2.7 Process Control Aids

15.2.7.1 Temperature Indication

15.2.7.2 Soldering Process Testing

15.2.8 The Maintenance of a Soldering Machine

15.2.9 Buying a Soldering Machine

15.3 Dip Soldering

15.4 Drag Soldering

15.5 Wave Soldering

15.5.1 The Wave Form and the Nozzles

15.5.2 Wave Soldering Machines for SMT

15.5.2.1 The Double Wave Soldering Machine

15.5.2.2 The Pulsed Wave Soldering Machine

15.5.3 Oil in the Wave

15.6 Infra-red Soldering

15.7 Convection and Forced Convection Soldering

15.8 Vapour Phase Soldering or Condensation Soldering

15.9 Laser

15.9.1 Types of Laser used for Soldering

15.9.2 Pulsed and CW lasers

15.9.3 Controlled Laser for Soldering

15.9.4 The Heat Flow in Metals Radiated by Laser

15.9.5 The Laser Solder Joint

15.9.6 Maximising the Advantages of Laser Soldering

15.9.7 Areas for Laser Soldering

15.9.8 The Economics of Laser Soldering

15.10 Light Soldering

15.11 Hot Bar Soldering

15.12 Hotplate Soldering

15.13 Belt Soldering

15.14 Hot Gas Soldering

15.15 Furnace Soldering

15.16 Robot Soldering

15.17 Ultrasonic (US) Soldering

15.18 High Frequency (HF) Soldering

CHAPTER 16

Microjoining Methods

16.1 Introduction

16.2 The Principles of Metallurgical Joining Methods

16.2.1 Soldering Methods

16.2.2 Welding Methods

16.2.2.1 Resistance Welding

16.2.2.2 Diffusion Welding

16.2.2.3 Ultrasonic (US) Welding

16.2.3 The Equipment

16.2.4 The Materials

16.2.4.1 Materials to be Joined

16.2.4.2 Chips, Dice or Die

16.2.4.3 Electrodes and Thermodes

16.2.5 Process Control

16.3 Different Joining Methods

16.3.1 Wire Bonding

16.3.2 Tape Automated Bonding (TAB)

16.3.3 Flip-chip

16.3.4 Beam Lead

16.3.5 Isothermal Soldering

16.3.6 Wire Wrap

16.3.7 Explosive Welding

16.3.8 Adhesives

16.3.9 Chip-on-board (COB) and Multichip Module (MCM)

16.3.10 Board Wiring Techniques

16.3.10.1 Impulse Bonded Wiring

16.3.10.2 Stitch Wire

16.3.10.3 Multiwireª and Microwireª